History of perfume

The word perfume is used today to describe scented mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, "per fumus", meaning through smoke. Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Egypt but was developed and further refined by the Romans, the Persians and the Arabs. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based. The basic ingredients and methods of making perfumes are described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia.

Mesopotamia

The world's first recorded chemist is a person named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a Cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia

India

Perfume and perfumery also existed in India, much of its fragrances were incense based. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita. The Harshacharita, written in 7th century A.D. in Northern India mentions use of fragrant agarwood oil.

Cyprus

To date, the oldest perfumery was discovered on the island of Cyprus.^[2] Excavations in 2004-5 under the initiative of an Italian archaeological team unearthed evidence of an enormous factory that existed 4,000 years ago during the Bronze Age.^[3] This covered an estimated surface area of over 4,000m² indicating that perfume manufacturing was on an industrial scale.^[4] The news of this discovery was reported extensively through the world press and many artifacts are already on display in Rome.^[5][6] The Bible describes a sacred perfume (Exodus 30:22-33) consisting of liquid myrrh, fragrant cinnamon, fragrant cane, and cassia. Its use was forbidden, except by the priests. The women wore perfume to present their beauty.

Islamic

See also: Alchemy and chemistry in Islam

Islamic cultures contributed significantly in the development of Western perfumery in both perfecting the extraction of fragrances through steam distillation and introducing new, raw ingredients. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced Western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.

As traders, Islamic cultures such as the Arabs and Persians had wider access to different spices, herbals, and other fragrance material. In addition to trading them, many of these exotic materials were cultivated by the Muslims such that they can be successfully grown outside of their native climates. Two examples of this are jasmine, which is native to South and Southeast Asia, and various citrus, which is thought to have originated in Southeast Asia. Both of these ingredients remain important in modern perfumery.

In Islamic culture, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6th century and its usage is considered a religious duty. Muhammad said:

“

The taking of a bath on Friday is compulsory for every male Muslim who has attained the age of puberty and (also) the cleaning of his teeth with Miswaak (type of twig used as a toothbrush), and the using of perfume if it is available. (Recorded in Sahih Bukhari).

”

Such rituals gave incentives to scholars to search and develop a cheaper way to produce incenses and in mass production. Thanks to the hard work of two talented Arabian chemists: Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber, born 722, Iraq), and Al-Kindi (Alkindus, born 801, Iraq) who established the perfume industry. Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be collected in the form of water or oil.^[7]

Al-Kindi, however, was the real founder of perfume industry as he carried out extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products. He elaborated a vast number of ‘recipes’ for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. His work in the laboratory is reported by a witness who said:

“

I received the following description, or recipe, from Abu Yusuf Ya'qub b. Ishaq al-Kindi, and I saw him making it and giving it an addition in my presence.

”

The writer goes on in the same section to speak of the preparation of a perfume called ghaliya, which contained musk, amber and other ingredients; too long to quote here, but which reveals a long list of technical names of drugs and apparatus. Al-Kindi also wrote in the 9th century a book on perfumes which he named ‘Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations’. It contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described one hundred and seven methods and recipes for perfume-making, and even the perfume making equipment, like the alembic, still bears its Arabic name.^[8]

The Persian Muslim doctor and chemist Avicenna (also known as Ibn Sina) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs, or petals which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.

Eggs and floral perfumes were brought to Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries from Arabia, through trade with the Islamic world and with the returning Crusaders. Those who traded for these were most often also involved in trade for spices and dyestuffs. There are records of the Pepperers Guild of London, going back to 1179; which show them trading with Muslims in spices, perfume ingredients and dyes

Western

Knowledge of something perfumery came to Europe as early as the 14th century due partially to Arabic influences and knowledge. But it was the Hungarians who ultimately introduced the first modern perfume. The first modern perfume, made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution, was made in 1370 at the command of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary and was known throughoutEurope as Hungary Water. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century, Italian refinements were taken to France by Catherine de' Medici's personal perfumer,Rene le Florentin. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulas could be stolen en route.

France quickly became the European center of perfume and cosmetic manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. During the Renaissance period, perfumes were used primarily by royalty and the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from the sanitary practices of the day. Partly due to this patronage, the western perfumery industry was created. Perfume enjoyed huge success during the 17th century. Perfumed gloves became popular in France and in 1656, the guild of glove and perfume-makers was established. Perfumers were also known to create poisons; for instance, a French duchess was murdered when a perfume/poison was rubbed into her gloves and was slowly absorbed into her skin.

Perfume came into its own when Louis XV came to the throne in the 18th century. His court was called "la cour parfumée" (the perfumed court). Madame de Pompadour ordered generous supplies of perfume, and King Louis demanded a different fragrance for his apartment everyday. The court of Louis XIV was even named due to the scents which were applied daily not only to the skin but also to clothing, fans and furniture. Perfume substituted for soap and water. The use of perfume in France grew steadily. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the Grasseregion of France to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, France remains the centre of the European perfume design and trade.

After Napoleon came to power, exorbitant expenditures for perfume continued. Two quarts of violet cologne were delivered to him each week, and he is said to have used sixty bottles of double extract of jasmine every month. Josephine had stronger perfume preferences. She was partial to musk, and she used so much that sixty years after her death the scent still lingered in her boudoir.

England

Perfume reached its peak in England during the reigns of Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I. All public places were scented during Queen Elizabeth's rule, since she could not tolerate bad smells. It was said that the sharpness of her nose was equaled only by the slyness of her tongue. Ladies of the day took great pride in creating delightful fragrances and they displayed their skill in mixing scents.

As with industry and the arts, perfume was to undergo profound change in the 19th century. Changing tastes and the development of modern chemistry laid the foundations of perfumery as we know it today. Alchemy gave way to chemistry and new fragrances were created. The industrial revolution had in no way diminished the taste for perfume, there was even a fragrance called "Parfum à la Guillotine". Under the post-revolutionary government, people once again dared to express a penchant for luxury goods, including perfume. A profusion of vanity boxes containing perfumes appeared in the 19th century.

Americas

In early America, the first scents were colognes and scented water by French explorers in New France. Florida water, an uncomplicated mixture of eau de cologne with a dash of oil of cloves, cassia, and lemongrass, was popular

A full search for the paper industry .. how the paper industry

Material in the form of thin pages made ​​cellulosic fiber weave for vegetables . The material used in these pages of writing and printing , packaging and in the fulfillment of many of purposes , ranging from filtering sediment from solution and industry specific types of building materials.
In the civilization of the twentieth century , it has become an essential element of the paper and became the development of technology for the production responsible for the rapid increase of education and high levels of education among people across the world .
History of the paper industry
Invention of paper back to the third millennium BC (about 2700 BC. AD ) has invented the ancient Egyptians good material for writing , with easy access to this article invaluable in handy , a papyrus . That was one of the greatest inventions in the history of mankind , and before that was the writing ( which appeared in the fourth millennium ) limited to stone or mud flaps and used by the Sumerians , preferring to write on it and found closer to trading , and Acer in the cost of cut stone , the boards made ​​up of silt pure soft , and pour into molds with canonical forms , and they come out the painting on the flat -sided disc , or in the form of a quarter circle flat surface convex back, or in the form of a rectangle . Painting may be in the form of the cone , and leave unchanged , after writing or dried in the heat of normal so gaining appropriate hardness .
The rectangular panels are more common , and were burned in ovens , and kept in the covers of mud after tossing them a little powder dry to prevent silt possess an adhesion , then this breaks cover before reading his portrait of the Interior.
The Egyptians then making paper from papyrus stalks , and resolving place books stone and clay . The papyrus cheaper price and Acer as it was growing in abundance in the swamps of the Delta . The paper pulp to make the cut longitudinal strips are placed in opposing two or three on top of each and then wetted with water and press . It was made ​​as pages separate , and then plastered these pages one at the bottom of the other , and thus might work tapes of different lengths with long texts . The width strips of papyrus has ranged from three feet to 18 feet . The longest known papyrus is Papyrus Harris reached a length of 133 feet and display (16) feet . I have been using papyrus in writing in AD uttered the Mediterranean until the atheist century AD .
The paper is now known , its history goes back to the second century AD . In 105 AD, making Chinese Tse any color paper from the bark of trees, and fish nets . Then come the Chinese to make paper from pulp to the door of the trees disappeared, this place is expensive silk , and the heavy weight of the jungle , who disguised by the Chinese for a long time . After the Chinese developed this material workmanship using fishplates of glue or gelatin mixed with a starchy paste prevailed by fiber paper and make a quick absorption of the ink .
But Chinese paper was limited and did not spread Iva experience in the ancient world or the mediator until the eighth century AD , when the Arabs knew the secrets of the Chinese paper industry after opening Samarkand in 93 AH / 712 AD . And established the first paper mill in Baghdad in 178 AH / 794 AD . And founded al-Fadl ibn Yahya in the era of Harun al-Rashid . Then spread the paper industry by leaps and bounds in all parts of the Islamic world , entered Syria, Egypt , North Africa and Spain , and people were writing until the time of slavery and Alasp and Allkhav , then ordered Harun al-Rashid , after a lot of paper , not people write only in Alkagd .
And developed industry Alkagd Muslims and Islamic factories produced excellent types of it. Among the most famous methods of industry Alkagd in Islamic eras mentioned in the book ' Mayor of the book and several with Kernels ' and it mentions the author of Prince goats bin Badesi way industry Alkagd of material hemp and white way : ' to soak hemp and wander until softened and then soaked in water, lime and rubbed by hand and dried reiterates this process three days and replace the water every time until it becomes white and then cut Palmqrad and soaked with water until relieved lime and then it beats in a mortar , a soprano so as not to keep the contract and then analyzes in the water and it becomes like silk and pour into molds according to the size you want and be a paper cut open strings is attributable to cannabis and hits a strong and boiled in the form of large water and stir on both sides, strong and boiled in the form of large water and stir on both sides, so be Tgena then poured into a mold and stir on a board and pasted on the wall to dry and fall Wei Akhz his smooth delicate and starch in cold water and boil until boiling and pour the flour and stir until Fataly amuse him paper and then damage the paper on a reed to dry from the duplex and then sprinkle with water and dried and polished ' .
During the ten consecutive centuries , until the date of the invention of the first paper machine in the eighteenth century did not change the basic processes used in the paper industry. The raw material was placed in a large basin then Tsahn Bmedkh or sledgehammer to separate the fibers . Then this article is washed with running water to get rid of the dirt , and after separation of the fiber without reservation change the water in the basin. At this stage , the liquid material is ready for the actual papermaking process .
The main machine in the paper industry is the template. This template is placed inside a wooden frame , a movable frame low around its edge . The maker of paper and dip the mold frame in the basin that contains a liquid material , and when they go out of the basin , the mold surface is covered with a thin layer of a mixture of fiber and water. The machine is then rocked back and forth and side to side . This process helps to distribute the mixture evenly over the surface of the mold and make the individual fibers are interwoven with other fibers near them, which makes the paper strong chick . During that run a large part of the water in the mixture over the network in the mold. Then leave the machine and chick wet paper some time until the paper together enough so that they can get rid of the wooden frame around the existing template.
And after removing the wooden frame of the mold , the mold is placed in a position inverted and placed the chick paper on the so-called non-woven homespun pad , then put the pad on the other chick paper and the process is repeated .
After laying pads between the number of chicks paper , placed in a pile all piston and subjected to a pressure of up to 100 tons degree or more where they are getting rid of most of the remaining water in the paper. Then separated from the chicks paper felts and overstock and press . And repeat the process pressure pile of paper several times and each time the pile placed in a different format where the chicks single paper in different modes for the other chicks . This process is called alternately repeated and leads to improve the surface of the leaves that have been completed manufactured . The last stage in the paper industry is the drying stage , where the paper attached in groups of four or five chicks on the ropes in a special drying room until the moisture evaporates completely in it .
For the paper , which uses the ink for the purposes of writing or in print , it requires additional treatment after drying , because without this treatment , will be absorbed by the paper and ink lines appear distorted. Include the treatment process to cover the paper with a layer of glue through Gmesh in a solution of animal glue and then drying the paper they are subjected to this process , and the completion of the paper by pressing the chicks between the metal sheets of paper or cardboard smooth . And determines the strength of the pressure feel of the paper. And pressing the leaves with coarse texture lightly to a relatively short period , while pressing the leaves with a soft texture severe pressure for a relatively longer period .
We have many types of paper in parts of the Islamic state , there was a Ettalhi , and Alnouha , and al-Jaafari , and the Pharaonic , and Tahiri , relative to the names of corrupt officials . This led to facilitate the production of books in a big way . In less than a century , Muslims produced hundreds of thousands of copies of the books , which was decorated with hundreds of public and private libraries all over the world from China in the east to the west of Andalusia .
Enter the Muslims of Andalusia and paper to Europe , and the Europeans at the time they write the Terrapins from the skins of animals , but the monks are accustomed to Knit literature greats Greece Blog slavery to write instead of religious sermons , which led to the loss of much of the heritage of Greece, scientific and cultural .
Then spread craft paper industry in Europe , Vonci the first paper mill in Spain around the year 544 AH / 1150 AD , then deteriorated this industry in Spain , and moved to Italy , and established the first factory for this purpose in the city Verriano year 674 AH / 1276 AD , and set up another factory in Padua in 833 AH / 1340 AD , then the other factories in many Trever , Florence, Bologna , Parma , Milan and Venice . The first paper mill was established in Germany was in the city of Mainz in 719 AH / 1320 AD , followed by another factory in Nuremberg in 792 AH / 1390 AD , while England have delayed the paper industry where for the rest of the European countries for nearly a hundred years was the construction of the first plant where the paper in 1495 AD . During the fifteenth century solution to replace paper skin parchments in writing in Europe . While the paper industry to have entered the United States in the late seventeenth century where he established the first factory in America in 1690 .
And has resulted in increased use of paper in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to a shortage in the bark of the wood raw material , which was sufficient only known European paper makers . At the same time , attempts were made to reduce the cost of paper through the invention of the machine replace the hand- molding process used in the paper industry. Has manufactured the first machine in the process of its 1203 / 1789 was invented by French inventor Nicolas Louis Robert . The development of this machine brothers Robert and Henry Fordgnier Ossell Fordgnier year 1217 AH / 1803 AD . It also solved the problem of the paper industry from cheap raw materials through the manufacturing process to reach a pulp around the year 1840 , has also been reached chemically pulp production processes then about ten years .
And currently makes more than 95% of paper from wood cellulose . Wood pulp is used only in the manufacture of cheap types of paper , such as that used in newsprint , but the species is used where the finest chemically treated wood pulp and a mixture of pulp and bark fibers . . The best types of paper - such as those used in writing - those made of bark fiber only .
Papermaking machine
When the paper industry automatically cleans the bark user using the machine in order to get rid of dust or ash and exotic materials . After the cleaning process , the bark is placed in the kettle where a large circular boil bark and lime under pressure steam for up to several hours . And lime combine with fat and other exotic materials in the soap bark to be insoluble , and can get rid of this soap later , as this reduces any lime colored pigment present in the vehicle color . Then turns to bark machine called a Hollander, a basin is divided longitudinally so that they form a continuum around the tub . In one half of the basin , there is a horizontal cylinder carrying a series of knives that spin rapidly near the base plate , a curved knives other provider . And passing the mixture consisting of bark and water between the cylinder and the baseboard and turns to bark fibers . In the other half of the basin , there is a hollow cylinder wash -coated thin is a network organization in a certain way so that sucks water from the basin , leaving behind her bark and fiber . During the flow of a mixture of water and bark about Alholander , is to get rid of dirt and soaked bark gradually until completely disintegrates into individual fibers . After that is inserted in the machine wet bark Hollander subset in order to separate the fibers again. At this point , add the coloring materials and glue Kasamg or type of resin and filler material , such as sulphate of lime or pure clay , so as to increase the weight and size of the paper

Paper recycling

Recycling paper is a series of processes that convert waste paper into new materials usable again. The lack of basic materials and human need has generated his desire to invent ways to cover the shortfall or downgraded. Vhajth to rubber, plastic and paper led him to the idea of ​​recycling until the economy and good use of these materials , minimizing waste any McCabe preservation of the environment .
This idea began during World War I and II , and this is what the legacy of pollution , and the large number of scattered waste , where the waste collected for re-use , and with the passage of time has become a process of re- industrialization of the most important methods used in the management of solid waste for their environmental benefits . The programs and campaigns carried out by the NGOs interested in the environment played a major role in the expansion of the public thought the issue of recycling because of its great importance has found great reception among students in schools , and even housewives and members of environmental associations .
Was considered remanufacturing direct basic form before the nineties , but with the beginning of the nineties began to focus on re- industrialization indirect , and this improves manufacturing waste to produce other materials based on the same raw material , such as recycled paper and cardboard, plastic, metal , especially aluminum and others.

Paper recycling process

Main article: deinking

The process of paper recycling involves mixing used paper with water and chemicals to break it down. It is then chopped up and heated, which breaks it down further into strands of cellulose, a type of organic plant material; this resulting mixture is called pulp, or slurry. It is strained through screens, which remove any glue or plastic that may still be in the mixture then cleaned, de-inked, bleached, and mixed with water. Then it can be made into new recycled paper.^[2The same fibers can be recycled about seven times, but they get shorter every time and eventually are strained out.^[3]

Rationale for recycling

Industrialized paper making has an effect on the environment both upstream (where raw materials are acquired and processed) and downstream (waste-disposal impacts).^]

Today, 90% of paper pulp is created from wood ( in most modern mills only 9-16% of pulp is made from pulp logs the rest from waste wood that was traditionally burnt). Paper production accounts for about 35% of felled trees,^[5] and represents 1.2% of the world's total economic output.^[6] Recycling one ton of newsprint saves about 1 ton of wood while recycling 1 ton of printing or copier paper saves slightly more than 2 tons of wood.^[7] This is because kraft pulping requires twice as much wood since it removes lignin to produce higher quality fibres than mechanical pulping processes. Relating tons of paper recycled to the number of trees not cut is meaningless, since tree size varies tremendously and is the major factor in how much paper can be made from how many trees.^[8] Trees raised specifically for pulp production account for 16% of world pulp production, old growth forests 9% and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the balance.^[5] Most pulp mill operators practice reforestation to ensure a continuing supply of trees.^{[citation needed]} The Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certify paper made from trees harvested according to guidelines meant to ensure good forestry practices.^[9] It has been estimated that recycling half the world’s paper would avoid the harvesting of 20 million acres (81,000 km²) of forestland.^]

Energy

Energy consumption is reduced by recycling,^] although there is debate concerning the actual energy savings realized. The Energy Information Administration claims a 40% reduction in energy when paper is recycled versus paper made with unrecycled pulp,^] while the Bureau of International Recycling (BIR) claims a 64% reduction.³Some calculations show that recycling one ton of newspaper saves about 4,000 kWh (14 GJ) of electricity, although this may be too high (see comments below on unrecycled pulp) ( recycling paper also produces no free energy in the way of process steam or recovery steam thus making it more expensive to recycle paper than to make new paper^{[citation needed]}). This is enough electricity to power a 3-bedroom European house for an entire year, or enough energy to heat and air-condition the average North American home for almost six months.^] Recycling paper to make pulp actually consumes more fossil fuels than making new pulp via the kraft process; these mills generate most of their energy from burning waste wood (bark, roots, sawmill waste) and byproduct lignin (black liquor).^] Pulp mills producing new mechanical pulp use large amounts of energy; a very rough estimate of the electrical energy needed is 10 gigajoules per tonne of pulp (2500 kW·h per short ton).^]

Landfill use

About 35% of municipal solid waste (before recycling) by weight is paper and paper products.^]

Water and air pollution

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has found that recycling causes 35% less water pollution and 74% less air pollution than making virgin paper.^] Pulp mills can be sources of both air and water pollution, especially if they are producing bleached pulp. Modern mills produce considerably less pollution than those of a few decades ago. Recycling paper decreases the demand for virgin pulp, thus reducing the overall amount of air and water pollution associated with paper manufacture. Recycled pulp can be bleached with the same chemicals used to bleach virgin pulp, but hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydrosulfite are the most common bleaching agents. Recycled pulp, or paper made from it, is known as PCF (process chlorine free) if no chlorine-containing compounds were used in the recycling process.^] However, recycling mills may have polluting by-products like sludge. De-inking at Cross Pointe's Miami, Ohio mill results in sludge weighing 22% of the weight of wastepaper recycled.

Recycling facts and figures

n the mid-19th century, there was an increased demand for books and writing material. Up to that time, paper manufacturers had used discarded linen rags for paper, but supply could not keep up with the increased demand. Books were bought at auctions for the purpose of recycling fiber content into new paper, at least in the United Kingdom, by the beginning of the 19th century.

Internationally, about half of all recovered paper comes from converting losses (pre-consumer recycling), such as shavings and unsold periodicals; approximately one third comes from household or post-consumer waste.

Some statistics on paper consumption:

• The average per capita paper use worldwide was 110 pounds (50 kg).
• It is estimated that 95% of business information is still stored on paper.
• Recycling 1 short ton (0.91 t) of paper saves 17 mature trees, 7 thousand US gallons (26 m³) of water, 3 cubic yards (2.3 m³) of landfill space, 2 barrels of oil (84 US gal or 320 l), and 4,100 kilowatt-hours (15 GJ) of electricity – enough energy to power the average American home for six months.
• Although paper is traditionally identified with reading and writing, communications has now been replaced by packaging as the single largest category of paper use at 41% of all paper used.
• 115 billion sheets of paper are used annually for personal computers.^[27] The average web user prints 28 pages daily.
• Most corrugated fiberboard boxes have over 25% recycled fibers^{[citation needed]}. Some are 100% recycled fiber.

Paper recycling by region

European Union

Paper recovery in Europe has a long history and has grown into a mature organization. In 2004 the paper recycling rate in Europe was 54.6% or 45.5 million short tons (41.3 Mt).^[29] The recycling rate in Europe reached 64.5% in 2007, leaving the industry on track to meeting its voluntary target of 66% by 2010.

Japan

Municipal collections of paper for recycling are in place. However, according to the Yomiuri Shimbun, in 2008, eight paper manufacturers in Japan have admitted to intentionally mislabeling recycled paper products, exaggerating the amount of recycled paper used

United States

Recycling has long been practiced in the United States. The history of paper recycling has several dates of importance:

• 1690: The first paper mill to use recycled linen was established by the Rittenhouse family.^[31]
• 1896: The first major recycling center was started by the Benedetto family in New York City, where they collected rags, newspaper, and trash with a pushcart.
• 1993: The first year when more paper was recycled than was buried in landfills.^]

Today, over half of all paper used in the United States is collected and recycled.^[33] Paper products are still the largest component of municipal solid waste, making up more than 40% of the composition of landfills.^[34][35] In 2006, a record 53.4% of the paper used in the US (or 53.5 million tons) was recovered for recycling.^[36] This is up from a 1990 recovery rate of 33.5%.^] The US paper industry set a goal of recovering 55 percent of all paper used in the US by 2012. Paper products used by the packaging industry were responsible for about 77% of packaging materials recycled, with more than 24 million pounds recovered in 2005.^]

By 1998, some 9,000 curbside recycling programs and 12,000 recyclable drop-off centers existed nationwide. As of 1999, 480 materials recovery facilities had been established to process the collected materials.^]

In 2008, the global financial crisis caused the price of old newspapers to drop in the U.S. from $130 to $40 per short ton ($140/t to $45/t) in October.^]

Mexico

In Mexico, recycled paper, rather than wood pulp, is the principal feedstock in papermills accounting for about 75% of raw materials.^]

Soap making his way in the house

The first way ..Amounts HaCans of olive oil .. approximately 16 kgCaustic soda and has several names .. Kaocetk soda or Qtrona or entirely possible and brought from store construction materials .Water - 8 litersWay ..First, you should exercise extreme caution when it is prepared and wear plastic gloves and use toolsPlastic or wood to boil and stir .. must use a pot made ​​of iron rather than aluminumOr Stainless Steel .. Materials because they interact with the soda produces fumes and thick smoke very severe Vigilance Please ..How to prepare ...In a bowl put a plastic soda and water and put Nkhalthm stir well by a long plank .As a result of interaction with soda water mixture becomes very hot ..Continue stirring until melted soda well .. Leave it to cool down a bitThen put oil with constant stirring until well mixed .Then leave for almost ten hours until the fermentation . The best thing at night , processing and leftFor the second day .After that we put in the barrel iron on the backburner and Nhrkha well consistently for an hour and a half or two hours.Then poured into wooden drawers and leave to dry put in place under well-ventilated and relatively cool .After a day or two and go We turn them over to dry completely .And thus be ready for use .. Bath and , God willing, our God
The second method ...Ingredients ..3 kg of olive oil450 g caustic soda (soda Kaocetk )And a half -liter of waterWayMelt the soda in the water well and continue stirring until the temperature is moderate ( tepid )Then put oil with constant stirring and Nhrkha becomes sticky Kalshambo .Then put them in plastic containers or cardboard shoes sight of God after packaging from abroad BallasqPlastic adhesive broad .. .. So do not open when we put the mix.Clear idea .. Means we get a carton ( shoebox ) Nglvha from abroad Baltchiq to become stronger and so as not to spoil the liquid soap .Keep the mixture of soap , of course , we need more than two cartons possible or three depending on the size carton .And put it in a well ventilated place away from sunlight and needs two to three days to dry .After dry soap go every day to its present Nqlbh all to dry completely .It is used ..This second method of course you should pay attention .. the use of plastic containers and wooden stick to move ..Bacon to do them in color on the Green Xue result olive oil and Ptwhit day all day .. I mean when it is fully droughtThe formation of a very beautiful white whiteness . And the formation of a liquid almost to do them and Ptbdo dry slowly .I mean, if Bchowoha liquid do not be afraid be kept dry and you have the finest soap ..
Soap Lavender ..After processing the previous mixture of soap before and poured in a cartonAdd lavender flowers as possible , as well as powdered lavender oil aromatherapy .And pour out to dry and so we have a soap and perfume of lavender flowers .
Soap honey ..Possible Add honey to the mixture and then pour the mixture to dry .
Chamomile SoapChamomile Flowers and prepare well and then Nfrckha Nnkhalha until we have a flower without any dirt or polesThen Nkhaltha soap after processing.
Soap bran .Add bran are clean before pour soap .
Soap smell of jasmineShould be added to the aromatic jasmine oil mixture .